QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF BREAD PRODUCED FROM BAMBARA
GROUNDNUT PROTEIN ISOLATE COMPOSITE FLOUR
ABSTRACT
Bread was produced from composite flour (wheat flour
and bambara groundnut ) and 100% wheat flour, five samples of bread where produced
from the composite flour formulation. A (100% wheat four), formulated. B .(99%
wheat flour and 1% bambara groundnut) formulation C (97% wheat flour and 5%
bambara groundnut) formulation D (95% wheat flour and 5% bambara groundnut)
formulation E ( 93% wheat flour and 7% bambara groundnut ). The baked samples
were subjected to sensory evaluation by ten trained panellist to the sensory
attributes of different types of bread showed that a significant difference was
observed in texture, and over all acceptability. It was discovered that there
is no significant difference between the bread produce from 100% wheat flour
and bread produced from bambara groundnut. But generally sample B which is 99%
wheat flour and 1% bambara groundnut was
the most efficient, among all the flour (Control) five bread sample were
produce and they were coded samples A, B, C, D, and E. Sample A contain 100% of
wheat flour, Sample B. 99% of Wheat flour and 1% bambara groundnut , Sample C
contains 97% wheat flour and 3% bambara groundnut , Sample D contains 95% of
Wheat flour and 5% of bambara Groundnut , sample E contain 93% Wheat and 7%
bambara groundnut and the aim of this
study was to enhance the nutritional value of wheat bread through the addition
of bambara groundnut to Wheat flour.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page
.................................................................................. i
Certification
............................................................................. ii
Dedication
................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgement
.................................................................... iv
Abstract
................................................................................... v
Table of Contents
......................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION.................................................................... 1
1.1 STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM........................................ 2
1.2 OBJECTIVES
OF THE STUDY................................................2
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE
REVIEW............................................................3
2.1 BREAD
RAW MATERIAL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS........3
2.1.1 BAMBARA
GROUNDNUT............................................. 6
2.2 USES
OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT................... 8
2.2.1 AGRONOMY
............................................................ 9
2.2.2 BACKGROUND........................................................ 10
2.2.3 DISEASE
OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT.............. 11
2.2.4 HARVESTING
OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT ..... 11
2.2.5 STORAGE
OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT .............. 12
2.2.6 FUTURE
PROSPECTS................................................. 12
2.3
WHEAT (TRITLCUM
AESTUVUM)............................ 13
2.3.1 HISTROY AND ORIDIN OF
WHEAT......................... 13
2.3.2 PREDOMINANT GROWING AREAS FOR
WHEAT 13
2.3.3
USES OF WHEAT.......................................................... 14
2.3.4 CULTIVATION OF
WHEAT........................................ 16
2.3.5 HARVESTING OF
WHEAT.......................................... 17
2.3.6
WHEAT STORAGE....................................................... 17
2.3.7
STRUCTURE OF WEIGHT......................................... 18
2.3.8 NUTRITIVE
VALUE................................................... 18
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS
AND METHOD.................................... 19
3.1 SOURCE
OF MATERIALS......................................... 19
3.2 PRODUCTION
OF PROTEIN ISOLATE.................. 19
3.3 BREAD
FORMULATION............................................. 21
3.4 BREADING
BAKING.................................................... 21
3.5
SPECIFIC VOLUME ANALYSIS................................. 23
3.6 SENSORY
EVALUATION............................................ 23
3.7 STATISTICAL
ANALYSIS........................................... 24
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT
AND DISCUSSION.......................................... 25
4.1
RESULT............................................................................... 25
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATION.......................... 27
5.1 CONCLUSION.............................................................................. 27
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
............................................................... 27
REFERENCES………………………………………………….. 28
APPENDIX
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2.1 TYPICAL ANALYTICAL FIGURE OF
THE GRAIN
TABLE 4.1 Result Of Sensory Evaluation
Carried Out On Bread Sample
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig:1
Bambara groundnut production
Fig: 2 Bread
production process
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bread is an important staple food in
both developed and developing countries. Wheat (Triticum Aestivum Desf) flour
of both hard and soft wheat classes has been the major ingredient of leavened
bread for many years because of its functional proteins. Bread has over the
years been produced conventionally from
wheat grows well in the temperate regions for the world. Demand for quality
baked products has necessitated supplements/substitute for wheat flour in the
bakery industry coupled with the ban on importation of wheat and wheat products
y Nigerian government some year ago. Due to the above mentioned reasons, there
is need for utilization of some locally available grains which can completely
substitute wheat in their products without adversely affecting the quality of
such product (Kent, 1984).
Bambara
groundnut (Vigna Subterranean) is important legume consumed in many parts of
Nigeria. It is highly nutritious, containing about 16.0% crude protein, 5.9%
crude fat 2.9% crude ash, 64.9% total. Carbohydrates and 9.7% moisture (Purse
glove 1991). It is equally rich in minerals vitamins, amino acids such as
lysine and tryptophan (Ningsanond and Ooraikul, 1985). Most of the research
conducted on the use of composite flours, in which a portion of wheat flour is
replaced by locally grown crops associated with imported wheat (Olaoye et al...2006) was devoted to
studying the effects of different flour substitutions on bread making quality.
Despite its nutritional potentials, bambara groundnut, like common food legume,
has not attained full utilization in the local diet due partly to its hand to
cook phenomenon, pronounced beany and often offensive flavour and high degree
of anti-nutritional factors (Akinjayeju and Bisiriju, 2004).
1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The importation of the wheat is a
problem and challenge on the wheat production since, the climatic condition of
our country Nigeria does not support the growth of wheat.
Furthermore, it imposes problems on
Nigeria economy due to her foreign exchange it also increases the cost of
finished goods from wheat (bread) and sometimes influences the quality of the products
from the wheat (e.g. bread).
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Major Objective
The major objective of this study is
to evaluate the equality of bread produced from Bambara groundnut protein
isolate composite flour.
Specific
objectives of this study are:
i.
To determine consumer
acceptability of bread produced from bambara groundnut protein isolate and
wheat flour.
ii.
To determine the
physical properties of bread produced from bambara groundnut protein isolate
and wheat flour.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Bread is a staple food prepared by
cooking dough of flour and water and possible more ingredients. Bread is a
product of high nutritional value and is consumed in most parts of the world (Mandela
et al; 2007), providing
energy, iron, calcium, vitamins and protein (Indriant et al; 2007), it is a perishable product and its
production involves the cooking or baking of dough obtained by mixing wheat
four, edible, salt (table salt) and potable wart (drinking water), fermented by
species of budding yeast used in baking such as saccharaomyces cerevisiae,
and with or without the inclusion of any special component (Mesas and Alegre
2002).
2.1 BREAD RAW MATERIAL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
i. FLOUR
Flour can be made from any type of milled
grain, although baking flour is usually made from wheat. It is flour that
provides the primary structure to the final baked bread. Commonly available
flours are made from rye, barley, maize and other grains, but it is wheat flour
that is most commonly used for breads. Each of these grains provides the starch
and protein necessary for the production of bread.
The
quantity of the proteins contained in flour services as the best indication or
the quantity of the bread dough and the finished bread. While bread flour
containing more protein, is recommended. If one uses a flour with a lower
(9.11%) protein content to produce bread, a longer mixing time will be required
to develop gluten strength properly.
This
extended mixing time heads to oxidation of the dough, which gives the finished
produce whiter crumb, instead of the cream colour preferred by most artisan
bakers. Baking flour primarily provides structure and texture for baked goods.
ii Liquid
Water,
or some other liquids, is used to form the flour into paste or dough. The
volume of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ration of 1 paxl liquid
to 3 parts flour is common for yeast bread, while recipes that use steam as the
primary leaving methods may have a liquid content in excess of one part flour
by volume in addition to water other types of liquids that may be used include
dairy product, fruit juice, or bear. In addition to the water in each of these,
they also contribute additional sweeteners, fat, and leaving components.
iii Yeast leavening
Many
types of bread are leavened by yeast. The yeast used for leaving bread is
saccharomyces cerevisiae, the same species use for brewing alcoholic beverages,
yeast is a living micro organism until it is destroyed by heat. As yeast grows
and multiplies it gives off carbon dioxide which causes the dough to rise its
actions is affected by the addition, this yeast ferment carbohydrates in the
flour, including any sugar, producing carbon dioxide. Most bakers in the U.S. leaven
their dough with commercial produced baker’s yeast.
Baker’s
yeast has the advantages of producing uniform, quick, and reliable result
because it is obtained from own yeast by preparing a growth culture which the
use in the making of bread.
Both
the baker’s yeast and the sour dough method of baking brad follow the same
pattern. Water is mixed with flour salt and the leaving agent (baker’s yeast or
sour dough starter). Other additions spices, herbs, fats, seed, fruits) are not
necessary to baked bread, but are often used.
The mixed dough is them allowed to
raise one or more time (a longer rising time result in more flavour, so bakers
often punch and let it rise again), then leaves are formed, and (after an
optional final rising time) the bread is baked in an oven.
iv. Fat
Fat
such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in egg affects the
development of gluten is bread by coating and lubricating the individual
strands of protein and also helping hold the structure together. If too much
fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect will cause the protein
structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the
concentration that will produce the greatest leaving action in addition to
their effects on leavening, gats also serve to tenderize brads and preserve
freshness.
v. Salt
Salt
is one of the most common additives used in production. In addition to
enhancing flavour and restricting yeast activity, salt affects the crumb and
strengthening the gluten some artisan bakers are foregoing early addition of
slat to the dough, and are waiting until after a 20 minute “rest”. This is
known as an autolyse and is done with both refined and whole grain flours
vi Bread improvers
Bread
improvers and dough conditioners are often used in producing commercial breads
to reduce the time needed for rising and to improve texture volume. Chemical
substances commonly used as brad improver include ascorbic acid, hydrochloride,
sodium metabisulfate, ammonium chloride, various phosphates, amylase, and
protease.
vii Baking powder
The
second is to include an acidic ingredient such as butter milk and add baking
soda: the reaction of the acid with the soda produces gas.
viii Water
As
flour is needed in baking so also water is needed-water which is very important
to human lives is also needed in bread production. It enables the mixer mix the
ingredients to give desired dough.
ix Sugar
Sugar
is one of the most common additives used in the production of bread in addition
to enhancing flavour, texture and taste of the bread.
2.1.1 BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
Bambara groundnut, (Vigna Subterranean(L)Verde),
is an indigenous grain legume grown mainly by subsistence women farmers in
drier parts of sub-Saharan Africa. The crop has advantages over more favoured
species in terms of nutritional value and tolerance to adverse environment
condition in which of Africa, bambara groundnut is the third most important
legume after peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and cowpea (vigna unguiculata).
It can yield on poor soils with little rainfall as well as produce substaintial
yields under better conditions. It is nutritionally superior to other legumes
an is the preferred food crop of many local people, (Linnemann, 1990, Brough
and Azam -All, 1992).
Bambara groundnut is a rich source
of protein (16-25%) and its seeds are valued both for their nutritional and
economic importance. The seeds command a high market price with demand for out
weighing supply in many areas (Coudent, 1982).
However, despites these important
attributes, the agro ecological and generic potentials of bambara groundnut
have not yet been fully realized nor its fully not yet been fully realized nor
its fully economic significance determined.
The crop is still cultivate from
local landraces rather than varieties bread specifically for particular agro
ecological condition of production systems.
Bambara groundnut has become less
important in many part of Africa because of the expansion of peanut production.
In recent years there has however been a renewed interest in the crop for
cultivation in the acid savannah zones.
Bambara groundnut is still one of
the lesser utilized legumes in Nigeria the lesser utilized legumes in Nigeria (Alozie et al; 2009). It has not
been adequately exploited as human food because of constraint like hard to cook
phenomenon, strong beany flavour, and presence of anti nutrients and poor
dehulling and milling characteristics (Enwere
and Hung, 1996; Alozie et al, 2009) the freshly harvested pods are
consumed cooked.
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean), is one of the
indigenous African crops currently receiving interest from researchers, because
of its high yield and resistance diseases (Hepper,
1970) Akande et al, 2009) as well as its adaptability to poor soils
and rainfall.
2.2 USES OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
The legume is consumed in many parts
of it. It is highly nutritious containing about 16.9% crude protein 5.9% crude
fed, 9% crude ash, 64.9% total carbon hydrates and 9.9% moisture (Purse glove, 1991).
It is equally rich in minerals
vitamins amino acid such as lysine and tryptohan (Ningsanond and Onalkul,
1989). Despite the relatively low oil content, some tribes in Congo reportedly
roasted the seeds and pounded them for oil extraction (Karikari, 1971). The
gross energy value of bambara groundnut seeds is greater than that of other
common pulses such as cowpea, lentol and pigeon pea (FAO, 1982).
Bambara
groundnuts seeds are consumed in many ways. They can be eaten fresh, or grilled
while still immature. At maturity it become very hard, therefore, required
boiling before any specific preparation. In many West Africa countries the
fresh ponds are build with or without condiment Bread made from bambara
groundnut flour has been reported in Zambia (Linnemann,1990),
Seeds can also be pounded into flour
and used to make a stiff porridge, which is often kept for a long boiled,
crunched and eaten as a relish. Another common use of bambara groundnut is the
make a paste out of the dried seeds, which is them used in the preparation of
various fried or steamed products, such as ‘’akara’ and moi-moi in Nigeria
(Obizoba, 1983). Another favourite Nigeria dish is ‘OKPA’ which is a dough
paste that is wrapped in banana leaves and boiled. In Ghana, the beans used to
be carried in gravy at GIHOC cannery in nsahcam. The product was thus available
throughout the years, and over 40,000 can of various sizes were product
annually (Doku and Karikari, 1971; Begemann, 1986).
Some time ago, a trial of bambara
groundnut miles carrie out which compared its flavour and composition with
those of miles prepared from pigeon pea and soya bean (Brough el at, 1993). Bambara groundnut was ranked first, and while
all milks were found to be acceptable.
The lighter colour of bambara
groundnut mild preferred Bambara groundnut has long been used as an animal
feed, and the seeds have been successfully used to feed chicks (Oluyemi et al 1976). The haulm
was found to be palatable (Doku and Karikari 1971). And the leaves were
reported to be rich in Nitrogen and phosphorus and therefore suitable for
animal grazing (Rassed 1960).
2.2.1 AGRONOMY
Cultivation
of bambara groundnut on a large scale and a pure start is not very common. The
crop is mostly grow by woman, inner cropped with major commodities such as maize,
millet, sorghum, cassava, yam peanut and cowpea. Grown in rotation bambara
groundnut improves the nitrogen status of the soil. (Mukurumbira, 1985).
Bambara
groundnut thrives better in deep, well drained soils with a light, friable seed
bed (Johnson 1968). Many farmers grow the crop on a flat seed bet, but the use
of ridges or mounds is also common in farmers fields, especially when crops are
not in rows.
In
experimental plots, recommended plant density ranged from 6 to 29 plats/m2
(Rassel 1960), Farmers do not normally apply chemical fertilizer to bambara
groundnut field. The nitrogen requirement is met by nature N2 fixation as
indicated by several modulation student (Doku 1969, somasegaran et al, 1990). Field increase as a
result of phosphate or potassium application has not always be confirmed (Johnson
1968, Nnadi, et al 1981).
2.2.2 BACKGROUND
Bambara
ground (Vigna subterranean) is an underutilised African legume cultivated
throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Cultivated throughout sub-Saharan African. It is
mainly produced as a subsistence crop, usually by resource poor women farmers,
on soils that are too poor to support the youth of other crops. In much Africa,
bambara groundnuts is the third most important legume after groundnut (Aractis
hypogaea) and cowpea (vigna unguiculata).
Bambara
groundnut has several production advantages, in that it can yield or soils of
low fertility and with little rainfall, it is nutritionally support to other
legumes, and is the preferred food crop of many people. The seeds command a
high price, with demand far outweighing supply in many areas. Zimbabwe exports
about 3,000 tonnes of bambara groundnut seeds a year to south Africa and
Botswana.
Bambara
groundnut consumed fresh after harvest, and is also stored for consumption later
in the year, the seed stores very well and is not prone to attack by pests or
disease. However, the dried seed becomes very hard to cook, requiring large
amounts of time and fuel which, it is believed, is one of the main constraints
to its increased utilisation. Previous research suggests that bambara groundnut
has the potential for processing and increased utilisation.
Bambara
groundnut seed can be used to produce a vegetable milk comparable with soy
milk, and protein function tests on the ground seed indicate that it can
compete with or replace other conventional flours in a range of processed
products.
2.2.3 DISEASE OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
Bambara
groundnut has a reputable for resisting pests, and compares favourably with
other legumes such as groundnut or cowpea in thus regard.
In
humid environment, however, fungal diseases such as cercostpora leaf spot,
fusarium wilt and sclerotium not and common (Billingston 1970; Begenanu 1986)
in such circumstances, spraying with the fungicides benlate (1 KG/HA) has
provide beneficial.
Viral
diseases are wide spread in most environment, especially in areas where other
grain legumes such as cowpea are grown. Common diseases are cowpea mottle virus
and cowpea applid-born mosale virus (Ng et al, 1985).
A
combination of unusually heavy attack and cercospora leaf spot on one
particular accession resulted in zero yield during a trial, at K aboinse, Burkina Faso (Golid et al 1991).
2.2.4 HARVESTING OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
Harvesting
of bambara groundnut is done by pulling or lifting the plant for the bunchett
type, most pods remain attached to the rood grown. Detached pod left in the
ground are collected manually. In a dry environment, harvesting takes place
when the entire foliage dries up. In humid ecosystems, however, pod-rotting or
early seed germination (in the pod) may takes place while the leaves are still
partially green. Harvesting is the recommended before full foliage drying.
Harvesting
pod are air-dried for several days before threshing. The raw product is sold at
markets, as pod or seeds. In dry areas, materials for plating the following
season are usually kept by farmers as pods. This reduces or eliminates attacks
by insects.
2.2.5 STORAGE OF BAMBARA GROUNDNUT
Bambara
groundnut seeds are orthodox, and can be stored at temperature below OC.
Bambara groundnut has low priority and is therefore receiving less attention
than many crops whose research is funded externally. The poor viability of
bambara seeds, is a frequent complaint of farmers, storage is normally at room
temperature without the application of any techniques to enhance the shelf life
and longevity of the seed.
2.2.6 FUTURE PROSPECTS
Bambara
groundnut is a promising commodity which needs more publicity, both as a crop
and a food. Even in tropical Africa, few people in the forest zones are aware
of its existence. It should be emphasized that it is a low-cost, dependable
crops fall. Its high nutritive value should also be made known to the general
public, and in particular, to the rural area. However, to ensure the wide
adoption of bambara groundnut, the general mode of consumption of consumption
of the crop need improvement.
Modern
processing methods would enable distribution of bambara groundnut to
non-producing areas. (Goli et al
1991).
2.3 Wheat (Tritlcum Aestuvum)
2.3.1 HISTORY AND
ORIGIN OF WHEAT
Wheat
is grown on more land area world wide than any other crop and is a closs third
to rice and corn in total world production. Wheat is well adapted to hash
environments and is mostly grown on wind swept areas that area too dry and two
cold for the more tropically inclined rice and corn which do best at
intermediate temperature levels.
Wheat
is believed to have originated in south western Asia. Some of the earliest remains
of the crop have been at present excavations of the world in eastern Iraq,
which date 9,000 years. Other archaeological findings show that bread wheat was
grown in the Nile valley about 5,000 B.C as same time. Wheat was first grown in
the United State in 1602 on an Island off the Massachusetts coast. Man has
beast for thousands of years. A global wheat failure would be a disaster that
few nations could survive for even one year.
Although
the so called bread wheat are common to most of us, there are many uncertainly
related species that make up the genus. Triticum; this likely was due to a
number of natural crossings with wild species during its early evolvement. Some
of the species closely related to our common wheat would be einkorn, emmer
durum and spelt (lane and Garen Benson 2002).
2.3.2 Predominant
Growing Areas for Wheat
In
20002, world wheat production was approximately 21 billion bushes. This was
grown on approximately 520 million acres. About 36 percent of the world production
is in Asia with about 17 percent in Europe Union countries and 16 percent in
North America. World leaders in order of wheat production are the China, India,
United States, France and Russia, Marked increases in wheat production in China
and India since the early 1960’s is one of the greatest success stories of
modern agriculture. The United States grew just over 62 million acres of wheat
in 2000 with an average yield of 41.9 bushels per acres. The top states in
acreage grown are Kansas, North Dakota, Montana, Oklahoma, and was hington.
Other leading producers are Texas, Colorado, Nebraska, South Dakota and Minnesota.
About
70 percent of the wheat planted in the United States is writer wheat (fall
seeded) of the remaining wheat acreage, 24 percent is planted to spring wheat
(spring seeded) and 6 percent to durum (spring seeded). Although five major
classes of wheat are grown in the United States,, the two major wheat are
hard-red spring and hard-red winter and both are bread wheat. Iowa is a very
minor producer, having only 20,000 acres in 2000, compared with 500,000 acres
in 1910. A major processing plant for making pasta products from durum wheat is
located in Ames, Iowa. (Lance Garen and 2002).
2.3.3 USES OF WHEAT
Although
useful as a livestock feed, wheat is used mainly as a human food. It is
nutritious, concentrated, easily stored and transported, and easily processed
into various type of food. Unlike any other plant derived food, wheat contains
gluten protein, which enables a leavened dough to rise by forming minutes gas
cells that hold carbon dioxide during fermentation. This process produces light
textured bread.
Wheat supplies about 20 percent of
the food calories for the world’s people and us a national staple in many
countries. In eastern Europe and Russia, over 30 percent of the calories
consumed come from wheat. The per capita consumption of wheat in the United
States exceeds that of any other single food staple. Besides being a high
carbohydrate food, wheat contains valuable, protein, minerals, and vitamins.
Wheat protein, when balanced by other foods that supply certain amino acids
such as lysine, is an efficient source of protein.
Various
classes of wheat are used for different purposes. The major classes used for
bread in the United States are hard-red spring and hard-red winter. These are
the major wheat grown in the Great plains of the United States the dominant
hard-red
Print wheat states are North Dakota, Montana,
Minnesota and South Dakota. The major hard-red winter producing states are
Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado and Nebraska. In recent years, some
production of hard white wheat has begun in the hard red winter region. These
wheats are of higher quality than red wheats, but have been prone to sprouting
than those available in the past.
Durum
wheat is [produced mainly in very limited areas of North Dakota and surrounding
states. Common foods produced from durum wheat are macaroni, spaghetti, and
similar products.
Soft
red winter wheat is grown principally in the eastern states. Ohio, Missouri,
Illinois, Indiana, and Arkansas lead in production of these wheat, soft wheat
are softer in texture and lower in protein than hard wheat.
Wheats
of this class are generally used in the manufacture of cakes, biscuit pastry,
and other types of flours. Soft white wheats are soft wheats grown mainly in
the northwest areas of the country. Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Michigan are
leading producers. Soft white wheats are used principally for pastry flours and
shredded and puffed breakfast food.
In
summary, wheat is the major ingredient in most breads, rolls, crackers,
cookies, biscuits, cakes doughnuts, muffins, pancakes, waffles, noodles, pie
crusts, ice cream cones, macaroni, spaghetti, puddings, pizza, and many
prepared hot and cold breakfast foods. It is also used in baby foods, and is a
common thickener is soups, gravies and sauces. Germ, bran and malt are
additional types of wheat products.
Much of the wheat used for livestock and
poultry feed is a by product of the flour milling industry. Wheat straw is used
for livestock bedding. The green forage may be grazed by livestock or used as
hay or silage. In many areas of the southern great plains, wheat serves a dual
purpose by being grazed in the fall and early spring and then harvested as a
grain crop. Industrial uses of wheat grain include starch for paste, alcohol,
oil and gluten\. The straw may be used for newsprint, paperboard, and other
products. A bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds. (Lance Gibson and Garren Benson
2002).
2.3.4 CULTIVATION OF WHEAT
Wheat crop is grown in the temperate
region where the annual rain fall average is between 10 and 70 inches and the
region must have a precipitation of 15 to 45 inches. High rainfall accompanied
by high temperature is unfavorable to wheat yield because it will develop wheat
disease. Land preparation. The following land will be kept clean by tillage and
time of tillage increased the amount of soil moisture and nitrates, seeding
method is by drill with disk furrow openers where winter is safer, how drill
and semi-furrow drill. Wheat is sown at a depth of 1½ of 3 inches and
fertilizer nitrogen application is applied to obtain a good by:
1.
Spraying with ester or
amine crop
2.
Herbicide is applied
when wheat is 4 to 6 inches tall
3.
Crop rotation with
meadow crop.
2.3.5 HARVESTING OF
WHEAT
Although
wheat is typically harvested in the moisture content range of 13% to 15% in
Kentucky, it can be harvested successfully at high moisture content, provided
it is dried quickly enough to prevent spoilage and or sprouting. The moisture
content at which harvest being depend heavily on the drying system available
and the threshing capacity of the combined. Wheat harvest can being as soon as
crop has yield tried enough that it can be handle safety. A moisture meter is
useful in giving a quick determination of crop condition.
Another
harvest techniques as to cut wheat with a sweater as soon as it reaches
physiological Maturity as a moisture content of about 40% to 42%. It is also
wed field in a swath (or window) until it can be threshed with a combined
harvester.
2.3.6 WHEAT STORAGE
Sanitation
aeration and monitoring are the watch word to remember when storing grain
during summer month.
Totally
remove the old crop before placing early harvested wheat in a bin, thoroughly
sweep the bin wall and floor (including under aeration ducts possible) to
remove grain kernels that may contain insect larvae or mould spores. Apply an
approved insect population development before placing wheat in the bin.
Aeration
should be used to cool heat after drying with heated air. To small degree
aeration with control grain temperature if it shorts heating during storage,
but this may only be a short term solution of heating cannot be controlled by
running the fan, the crop must be removed to another bin that usually cause the
problem.
Check
the condition of store wheat once a week during hot weather to guard against
deterioration from moulds or insects, run for a few minutes to check for off
odours of the air from the grain rule lock out unloading augur motor switches
before looking inside any bin to check for wet spots or the grain surface feel
the top 6 o 1 inches of wheat to monitor temperature and insect and mould
activities.
2.3.7 STRUCTURE OF
WEIGHT
The
grain of wheat consist of an outer fibrious covering the pericap and testa
which is hard and indigestible and an inner lining aleurone attached layer
which contain a higher carbohydrate, an embryo attaché to a small structure,
the scutellum at the lower end of the grain and the endospera, comprising 85%
of the whole grain iron which the flour is derived (Obomeghei and Yusuf 2002).
2.3.8
Nutritive value
The composition of wheat varies with the
variety of the seed, the structure of the soil and the climate.
Typical analytical figure of the grain
are:
|
Compounds %
content
|
||
|
Starch
|
65 - 75%
|
|
|
Protein
|
8 – 10%
|
|
|
Water
|
10 -14%
|
|
|
Fat
|
1 – 2%
|
|
|
Fibre
|
1.5 – 2.5%
|
|
|
Ash
|
0.4 – 10%
|
|
|
Food
energy
|
334 calories
|
|
Source:
(Obomeghie and Yusuf 2002)
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 SOURCE OF MATERIALS
The
wheat flour, bambara groundnut and other baking ingredients where purchased
from Jattu market in Etsako West Local Government Area, Edo State.
3.2 PRODUCTION OF PROTEIN ISOLATE
The bambara groundnut seeds
collected and soaked for 12 hrs, then wash winnowed with a tray to the chaff it
is then taken to grinding machine to grind, then after grinding add water to
make it light and also add lime (because of its acidic content) after that
allow it calculate remove the upper sibstoncel decent then extract after fat
extraction. Rotary screen processing was done by the protein isolate content was
increased removing lipids and other non-protein.
Bambara
groundnut seed
Soaking
Wash
Remove the shalf
Pre-cleaning
Grinding/add
water
Mix/Rotary
turning
Add lime 
Stire
Extract fat
Allow to settle
for 3 minutes
Sieving
Protein isolate
Figure 1: Bambara groundnut
flour production
3.3 BREAD FORMULATION
Four
samples of bread were formulated as presented in table.
TABLE
1: BREAD FORMULATION |
INGREDIENTS
|
SAMPLES
|
||||
|
|
A B C
D E
|
||||
|
Wheat flour %
|
100
|
99
|
97
|
95
|
93
|
|
Sugar %
|
6
|
6
|
6
|
6
|
6
|
|
Yeast
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
|
Protein isolate %
|
0
|
1
|
3
|
5
|
7
|
|
Salt %
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
1.2
|
|
Water
|
40
|
40
|
40
|
40
|
40
|
|
Fat
|
6
|
6
|
6
|
6
|
6
|
3.4 BREADING BAKING
All ingredients were weighted using
a laboratory scale, into a mixing bowl to mix then together for 2 minutes then
a suspension of the yeast in water was added. The mixture was further run at
high speed for 92 seconds, water was added to the mixture as indicated by the
dough was milled with the milling machine after milling the dough was
transferred to the table for cutting and scaled the dough roll gap, moulded by hand,
rub with oil and butter after oiling it is being put into the pans and covered,
when the height of dough had risen to about 1-2cm above the pans, the pans were
placed in a convention oven at 2120C for 18 minutes, the bread was
left to cool for 7 minutes then kept closed in polyethylene bag at room
temperature (250C) for packaged and sensory evaluation.
3.5 SPECIFIC VOLUME ANALYSIS
The
specific volume of bread was calculated according to the AACC method (AACC,
2000) by dividing volume (CC) by weight (g). Loaf volume was measured by
rapeseed displacement immediately after removal from the oven and weighing.
Loaves
were placed in a container of known volume into which repeseeds were run until
the container was full the volume of seed displaced by the loaf was considered
as the loaf volume.
Loaf
specific volume (LSV) was calculated according to the following
LSV
= Loaf volume (CC) / Loaf Weigh (g) = cc/g
3.6 SENSORY EVALUATION
Semi
trained panellists were given a hedonic scale questionnaire to evaluate the
bread using a 9 points scale (1-extremely dislike, 2-dislike very much,
3-dislike moderately, 4-dislike slightly, 5-neither like nor dislike, 6-like
slightly, 7-like moderately, 8-like very much, and 9- extremely like). Pan
bread was evaluated for general appearance, crumb grain, odour softness,
testate, mouth feel and overall acceptability.
Bread
was evaluated based on general appearance, aroma, testate, crumb colour,, and
overall acceptability measures.
During
sensory evaluation, panellists were instructed to drink water or rinse their
mouths to clear the palate after each evaluation. Sensory evaluation was done
on the same day that the breads were prepared.
3.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to examine the significance level of
all parameters measured. Least significant difference (LSD) test was used for
means comparison. All analyses were performed in triplicate (n=3).
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1
TABLE 4.1 shows the mean score of sensory
evaluation carried out on bread produced from bambara groundnut protein isolate
flour
Table 4.1 Result
of Sensory Evaluation Carried Out On Bread Sample
PARAMETERSSample Colour Taste Appearance Aroma General
Acceptability
A
8.60a+0.52 8.30a+0.48 8.40a+0.70 8.40a+0.69 8.40a+0.70
B 8.40a+0.70 8.20a+0.79 8.20a+0.63 8.20a+0.63 8.30a+0.67
C 8.50a+0.53 8.30a+0.82 8.30a+0.82 8.50a+0.83 8.10a+0.74
D 8.20a+1.03 7.90a+1.10 7.70a+0.83 8.00a+0.81 8.20a+1.14
E 8.60a+0.52 7.90 a+1.10 7.90 a+0.23 8.50 a+0.53 8.40 a+0.70
Values with the same superiority
letters are not significantly different
SAMPLE A =100% wheat flour
SAMPLE B = 99% wheat flour + 1%
bambara groundnut
SAMPLE C = 97% wheat flour + 3%
bambara groundnut
SAMPLE D = 95% wheat flour + 5%
bambara groundnut
SAMPLE E = 93% wheat flour + 7%
bambara groundnut
The
result of this study showed no significant difference ( p>0.05) among the
samples’ colour however, sample A and sample E had the least score of ( 8.60
)while sample D had the least score of ( 8.20 ).The difference could be as a result of panellist’s preference in colour.
The result of this study shown in table 4.1 showed no significant
difference ( p>0.05) in samples’
taste. Notwithstanding sample A and sample C had the highest score of ( 8.30)
while sample D and E had the least score of ( 7.90 ). This difference in
preference could have occured due to the different percentage of bambara
groundnut used in each sample of bread. The result of this study shown in table
4.1 showed no significant difference ( p > 0.05 ) among samples’ appearance.
Not with standing, sample A had the highest score highest score of (8.50)
while sample D recorded the least score (8.00). this difference in aroma of
samples could be as a result of the bambara groundnut used in sample
preparation.
The
result of this study shows a significant different (P>0.05) among the samples
general acceptability, sample A and sample E recorded the highest sensory score
of (8.40) while sample C recorded the least score of (8.10). This difference in
general acceptability sample could be as a result of the bambara groundnut used
in sample preparation.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The results from sensory evaluation
have revealed that bread produced from the normal wheat flour 100% and 20%
bambara groundnut protein isolate combination was equally acceptable as those
produced from 100% wheat flour in terms of some quality attributes evaluated.
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
The
results of the work suggest the potential application of bambara groundnut
flour at 20% combination and normal wheat flour is 100% in the baking industry.
The
consumption of bread produced from wheat flour supplemented with bambara
groundnut will increase in terms of good quality protein and fibre among
Nigerians in an acceptable. Food medium with a resultant effect of increased
consumption and utilization of bambara groundnut thus, reducing importation of
wheat and reduction of weight problems where low caloric and high fibre diet or
food is desirable. In addition government at all level should encourage bakers
to adopt the practice of using bambara groundnut flour as a supplement for
baking of bread.
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Billington, R.V, (1970). The effect of playing dates
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Begemann, F. (1986). Bambara groundnut: back-groundnut
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Begemann; F. (1986). Bambara Groudnut (Vinga-
subterranean) (L) verdal. Pest and diseases. International institute of
tropical agriculture (IITA). Genetic resources unit, Ibadan, Nigeria 18pp.
Brough, S.H. and Azam-ALI, S.N., (1992). The effect of
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Coudent, M.J (1982). Niebe et Voland 2011 the
perspective pour development du commerce regional en afrigue de I’ oust cowpea
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Doku, E.V and Karikari, S.K, (1971). Bambara Groundnut
Econ Bol-25 (3): 225- 262.
Doku, E.V.(1995). Proceeding of the workshop on
conservation and improvement of Bambara Groundnut vigna subterranean (L.) Har
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F.A.O, (1995). Sorghum and Millets in Human Nutrition.
F.A.O Food and nutrition Series, No. 27. Retrieved
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F.A.O, (1982). Legumes in human nutritution F.A food
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Ikekoroye, A.T and Ngoddy P.O (1985). Integrated food
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Indraini, Prabhasonkan, P. Kajiri, Je and
Venkateswara, R.G. (2007). Influence of where protein concentration on the
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Johnson, D.T, (1968). The Bambara groundnut: are view
Rhodesia agric journal 65: 1-4.
Karikari, S.K., (1971) Economic importance of Bambara
groundnut. World corps 23 (4):195-196.
Kent, N.L(1984) Technology of cereal. Pergamon press
Ltd. Heading tin him hall ocford united
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Linnemann, A.R, (1990). Cultivation of Bambara
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Mandala, I. Karabela, D.E and Kostaropoules, A,
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APPENDIX
Summary
of colour result from tastes panel of colour quality
TABLE
2
|
Judges
|
A
|
B
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
|
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
6
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
Control
|
|
|
|
|
TABLE 3
Summary of result from
taste panel or TASTE QUALITY
|
Judges
|
A
|
B
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
7
|
7
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
6
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
7
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
7
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
7
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
6
|
7
|
|
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
Control
|
|
|
|
|
TABLE 4
Summary of result from
taste panel for APPEARANCE quality
|
Judges
|
A
|
B
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
7
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
6
|
7
|
|
|
7
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
7
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
7
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
Control
|
|
|
|
|
TABLE 5
Summary of result from
the table panel for AROMA quality
|
Judges
|
A
|
B
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
6
|
9
|
|
|
Control
|
|
|
|
|
Summary of result from
the panel for general acceptability quality
TABLE 7
|
Judges
|
A
|
B
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
7
|
6
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
7
|
7
|
7
|
8
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
7
|
7
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
7
|
8
|
|
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
8
|
9
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
9
|
9
|
|
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
Control
|
|
|
|
|
35
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